Assignment 2.2: Ratio Analysis

Assignment 2. 2: Ratio Analysis Name| | Part 1: Enter the information based on your computations. | 2011| 2010| Benchmark| Favorable (F), Unfavorable (U), or Approximate (A)? 2011/2010| 1. Current ratio | 3. 52| 2. 59| 2. 00| Favorable| 2. Days cash on hand| 27. 64| 18. 10| 15. 00| Favorable| 3. Days in A/R| 69. 32| 76. 59| 45. 00| Favorable| 4. Operating margin | 2. 18%| 3. 03%| 4%| Unfavorable| 5. Return on total assets | 5. 08%| 7. 13%| 4%| Unfavorable| 6. Return on net assets | 14. 54%| 17. 76%| 10%| Unfavorable| 7. Debt to capitalization| 61. 21%| 53. 69%| 50%| Unfavorable| 8.Times interest earned | 2. 47| 3. 36| 4. 00| Unfavorable| 9. Debt service coverage | 1. 28| 1. 30| 2. 00| Approximate| 10. Fixed asset turnover | 3. 28| 2. 88| 3. 00| Favorable| 11. Salary and benefit/NPSR| 84. 08%| 82. 82%| 55%| Unfavorable| 1. Current ratio = Total Current Assets in Balance Sheet / Total Current Liabilities in Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| $54,306/$15,425| $39,715/$15,315| 3. 52| 2. 59 | 2. D ays Cash on Hand = Cash and Cash Equivalents from Balance Sheet / [(Total Expenses – Depreciation – Provision for Bad Debts in Statement of Operations) / 365] 011| 2010| $12,102/[($168,232 – $6,405 – $2,000)/365]| $6,486/[($138,394 – $5,798 – $1,800)/365]| $12,102/[$159,827/365]| $6,486/[$130. 796/365]| $12,102/437. 88| $6,486/358. 34| 27. 64| 18. 10| 3. Days in A/R = Net Patient Accounts Receivable in Balance Sheet / (Net Patient Service Revenue in Statement of Operations / 365) 2011| 2010| $28,509/($150,118/365)| $25,927/$123,565/365)| $28,509/411. 28| $25,927/338. 53| 69. 32| 76. 59| 4. Operating margin = Operating Income from Statement of Operations / Total Revenues in Statement of Operations 2011| 2010| 3,747/$171,979| $4,330/$142,724| .0218 x 100| . 0303 X 100| 2. 18%| 3. 03%| 5. Return on total assets = Net Income in Statement of Operations / Total Assets in Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| $7,860/$154,815| $8,206/$115,101| .0508 x 100| . 07 13 x 100| 5. 08%| 7. 13%| 6. Return on net assets = Net Income in Statement of Operations / Net Assets in the Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| $7,860/$54,068| $8,206/$46,208| .1454 x 100| . 1776 x 100| 14. 54%| 17. 76%| 7. Debt to capitalization = Long-term Debt in Balance Sheet / Long term debt + Net Assets in Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| 85,322/($85,322 + $54,068)| $53,578/($53,578 + $46,208)| $85,322/$139,390| $53,578/$99,786| .6121 x 100| . 5369 x 100| 61. 21%| 53. 69%| 8. Times interest earned = (Net Income + Interest) in Statement of Operations / Interest in Statement of Operations 2011| 2010| ($7,860 + $5,329)/$5,329| ($8,206 + $3,476)/$3,476| $13,189/$5,329| $11,682/$3,476| 2. 47| 3. 36| 9. Debt service coverage = (Net Income + Interest + Depreciation) in Statement of Operations/ Interest + Principal Payments ($10 million assumed for this assignment) 2011| 2010| ($7,860 + $5,329 + $6. 05)/$15,329| ($8,206 + $3,476 + $5,795)/$13,476| $19,594/$15,329| $17,477/$13,476| 1. 28| 1. 30| 10. Fixed asset turnover = Total Revenues in Statement of Operations / Net Property and Equipment 2011| 2010| $171,979/$52,450| $142,724/$49,549| 3. 28| 2. 88| 11. Salary and benefits as a % of net patient revenue = Salaries and Benefits in Statement of Operations / Net Patient Service Revenue in Statement of Operations 2011| 2010| $126,223/$150,118| $102,334/$123,565| .8408 X 100| . 8282 x 100| 84. 08%| 82. 82%| Part 2: Type your memo to senior management below

Height: Width of Limpets Across Different Zones

Rocky Shore Ecology: Holbeck Beach This study was conducted to deduce whether the height to width ratio of limpets altered across the three main zones on the shore: upper, middle and lower. It was carried out on Holbeck Beach, North Yorkshire, where limpets were measured in all three zones using random sampling. We found a significant difference in the height to width ratio between the upper and lower shore and upper and middle shore. This is due to many factors, including the threat of desiccation and strong waves. Limpet Patelle VulgataRocky ShoreEcologyHolbeck BeachUpper ShoreMiddle ShoreLower ShoreCallipers QuadrentRandom SampleDesiccation INTRODUCTION Common limpets, Patella Vulgata, are found, on rocky shores, wherever there is an area firm enough for attachment on rocks, stones and in rock pools. [1] The common limpet is commonly found on Holbeck shore in relatively high abundance. Patella vulgata are in the taxonomic group gastropoda, and the family acmaeidae. They are abunda nt on rocky shores of all degrees of wave exposure but a high density of seaweed makes it harder for the Patella Vulgata to attach itself to the rocks, so limpet density is reduced. 2] Patella Vulgata have the ability to use their mucus and their ‘foot’ to clamp down upon the rock with considerable force. This allows them to remain safely attached at all times, despite strong wave action and the threat of desiccation during low tide. When the limpet is fully clamped onto the rock it is almost impossible to remove them. The common limpet is a temperate species, so is found mainly across Europe, spread from Norway to Portugal. The grey conical shell of Patella Vulgata can reach a width of 6cm and height of 3cm with ridges radiating from the central apex.The muscular foot of the limpet is usually a yellow colour and attached to the smooth interior of its shell. [3] Limpets graze upon algae, which grows upon the rocks where they live. They can scrape the algae with its radu la (a tongue coated with many rows of teeth) as they slowly move across the rock surfaces. The Patella Vulgata always return to the same spot, known as the homing scar, before the tide withdraws. The shells grow to match the contours of the rock in order to form a strong seal, protecting them from desiccation and also predation.They find their way back to the same spot by using chemical cues, finding their own mucus track and following it back to their home point. [4] Limpets are the prey of a variety of creatures, including seals, fish, shore-birds, starfish and humans. The limpets have two defences: fleeing or clamping down to the rock. They can determine which would be the most effective by detecting chemicals in the environment. Patella Vulgata have the general lifespan of 10 years but this can be drastically changed by the rate of growth. If there is an excess of food, the limpets grow exceedingly quickly but generally only live for around 3 years.However, if food is sparse, li mpets usually grow very slowly but can live up to 20 years. [5] Patella Vulgata are hermaphrodites and undergo a sex change during their life. At around 9 months they mature as males, but after a couple of years they change sex and become female. Spawning occurs annually, usually during the winter months as it is triggered by rough seas, which disperse the eggs and sperm. [6] The larvae has a pelagic life of about 2 weeks and then settles on rocks at a shell length of about 0. 2 mm, usually in rock pools or areas that are constantly damp. HYPOTHESISOur hypothesis states that there will be a difference in the height to width ratio of limpets on different parts of the beach: lower, middle and upper. The null hypothesis states that there will be no difference between the height to width ratio of limpets on different parts of the beach: lower, middle and upper. METHOD We visited an exposed rocky shore at Scarborough in order to deduce whether the height to length ratio of limpets change d across different zones of the shore. Initially, we had to identify the different area of the beach and we did this by using different types of seaweed and levels of diversity as an indicator. 7] The upper zone, also known as the high tide zone, does not have enough water to sustain large amounts of vegetation. [8] The predominant organisms are anemones, barnacles, hermit crabs and limpets. The rock pools in this area are inhabited by large seaweed and small fish. The middle shore, or middle tide zone, is submerged by water for approximately half of the cycle. This means that there is the capability to support much more marine vegetation, specifically seaweeds. The organisms found there are more complex and larger in size than further up the shore. 9] The rock pools can provide a suitable habitat for small fish, sea urchins, shrimps and zoo plankton. This area is more diversified than the upper shore. The lower shore, or low tide zone, is mostly submerged underwater. The most notic eable difference of this sub-region is the large diversity of different types of seaweeds. Organisms found in this zone are generally less adapted to periods of dryness. The creatures are generally the largest and most complex organisms on the shore as there are more sources of food as marine vegetation flourishes.The way that we sampled was random, meaning that every point is equally likely to be selected, and selection of one point does not change the probability of including any other point. [10] Once we had deduced the zones, we picked a random point in the zone, which was always the origin, and used a random number chart to decide how we far would walk before putting down the quadrant. We then measured the height and width of all the limpets inside the quadrant. In order to measure the limpets accurately we used a set of callipers; the callipers were positioned from the posterior end of the shell to the anterior.On average we measured 27 limpets per zone. We did not calculate a running mean but we knew from other students that variation decreases in the region of 20-25. We collected the data using a simple tally, adding to it during the day. RESULTS Lower to Middle Shore My hypothesis was that there would be a significant difference in the height to length ratio of limpets found between the lower and mid shore. My statistical test gave a t-value of 1. 3 at 52 degrees of freedom. This value is not large enough to give me any confidence that there is a statistically significant difference, as it is below 1. 8; therefore I must reject my hypothesis and accept my null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the height to length ratio of limpets found between the lower and mid shore. Middle to Upper Shore My hypothesis was that there would be a significant difference in the height to length ratio of limpets found between the mid and upper shore. My statistical test gave a t-value of 3. 3 at 50 degrees of freedom. This value is larger than 2. 70, giving me a 99% confidence that there is a statistically significant difference and therefore I am able to accept my hypothesis. Upper to Lower ShoreMy hypothesis was that there would be a significant difference in the height to length ratio of limpets found between the upper and lower shore. My statistical test gave a t-value of 3. 2 at 52 degrees of freedom. This value is again larger than 2. 70 giving me a 99% confidence that there is a statistically significant difference and therefore I am able to accept my hypothesis. CONCLUSIONS The data we collected shows that the smallest limpets found on the Holbeck shore were on the middle shore. We found that, on the lower shore, the limpets had the smallest height but the largest width.This can be explained as they are the affected most by strong waves and are most at risk of being washed away. To combat these problems they have a shallow but wide shell to give the largest area for the muscular foot to hold onto the rock. Also, the limpets at the bottom of the shore are underwater for the longest time. This means that they have less problems combating desiccation than limpets in the other zones. This allows for a larger circumference of the shell, as it is not as essential to have a perfect seal to the rock. [11]On the upper shore, the limpets we found were generally taller with a smaller base of their shell. Being far up the beach, they do not have as many strong waves which may wash them from their rock so they do not need as large an area for the muscular foot to grip the rock. However, the smaller circumference lowers the chances of having an imperfection in the shape of the shell compared to the homing scar, meaning that a perfect seal will be created. This is of paramount importance as they spend most of their time exposed and in the sunlight – meaning desiccation could easily occur. 12] To help prevent desiccation, the tall shell allows water to be trapped inside, creating a small pool and allow ing the limpet to survive whilst being out of water during low tide. FURTHER DISCUSSION Apart from the threats of desiccation and strong waves, there may be other factors which influence the growth of limpets in different areas on the shore. One factor would be the feeding time available for limpets. [13] Limpets further down the shore spend more time underwater so they have more time to graze where as the limpets further up the shore have very little time under water so have very little grazing time. 14] The amount food eaten may in some way affect the growth patterns and development of the conical shells. Another factor is salinity. When the shore is submerged regularly by sea water, the salinity generally remains stable. However, in areas with an abundance of rock pools may have varied salinity levels. As rock pools constantly dry out, due to exposure to warm temperature, the water evaporates leaving behind the salt. [15] Overtime the salinity levels become high, making the rock pool inhabitable to many creatures, including limpets which can only tolerate normal sea water salinity. 16] Fluctuations in salinity alter the water potential and may cause cells in the limpet to become turgid or flaccid – both of which are dangerous. REFERENCES [1] – RG Evans (1974). Biology of British Limpets: Page 411. Found on 12. 10. 12. [2] – I Cockcroft. Website: Gyllybeach, Common Limpet. Found on 13. 10. 12. [3] – Fish, J. D. & Fish, S. (1996) A student's guide to the seashore. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Found on 13. 10. 12 [4] – Website: pznow, Limpets. Found on 14. 10. 12. [5] – Hill, J. M. , (2000). Patella vulgata.Common limpet. Marine Life Information. Found on 17. 10. 12 [6] – BBC (2005) Website: BBC, Science and Nature, Animal Fact Files, Common Limpet. Found on 12. 10. 12. [7] – Vipera, T. Website: Life Under The Sea, Zonation. Found on 18. 10. 12. [8] – YPTE (2010). Website: ypte, Environment, Rocky Shore Ecology. Found on 15. 10. 12. [9] – Rothery M (2005) Rocky Shore Handout. Found on 20. 10. 12. [10] – R Easton, Hall J. Website: Stats Glossary, Sampling. Found on 18. 10. 12. [11] – Norfolk WT (2011). Website: Norfolk Wildlife Trust, Wildlife, Common Limpet. Found on 20. 0. 12. [12] – J Adams (1999) â€Å"A Comparison of Width and Height of Common Limpets Between a Sheltered Shore and an Exposed Shore.. Found on 20. 10. 12. [13] – Levinton J. S. (1995) Marine biology: function, biodiversity, ecology. Oxford University Press. Found on 22. 10. 12 [14] – Bennett, I. (1987) W. J. Dakin's classic study: Australian Seashores. , Angus & Robertson, Sydney. Found on 22. 10. 12. [15] – Wars (2011). Website: Limpet Wars, marine science. Found on 20. 10. 12. [16] – Knox G. A. (2001) The ecology of seashores. CRC Press. Page 557. Found on 20. 10. 12

Bill of Rights

Bill of Rights Essay In 1791, the Bill of Rights Essay, consisting of 10 amendments, was ratified into the constitution. The documents purpose was to spell out the liberties of the people that the government could not infringe upon. Considered necessary by many at the time of its development, the Bill of Rights became the cause for a huge debate between two different factions: The Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The Federalists were those who thought that there should be a new Union created with a strong centralized government and individual regional governments. They felt that it was not necessary for there to be a bill of rights because it was implied that those rights the Constitution did not specifically state would be handed down to the states. On the other hand, the Anti-Federalists were opposed to such a form of government on the grounds that the Constitution, in which it was outlined, lacked clarity in the protections of the individuals. The Anti-Federalistswhose memory of British oppression was still fresh in their mindswanted certain rights and guarantees that were to be apart of the constitution (Glasser 1991). A clear demonstration of the Anti-Federalist attitude was performed by Samuel Bryan, who published a series of essays named the Cenitnal Essays, which assailed the sweeping power of the central government, the usurpation of state sovereignty, and the absence of a bill of rights guaranteeing individual liberties such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion (Bran 1986). Of course, the freedoms stated above are a portion and not the whole of The Bill of Rights. Ultimately, The Bill of Rights was adopted to appease the Anti-Federalists, whose support was necessary to ratify the constitution, and who believed that without the liberties granted therein, the new constitutionthat they thought was vague and granted too much power to the central governmentwould give way to an elite tyrannical government. The purpose of The Bill of Rights is to protect U. S. citizens from abuse of power that may be committed by the different areas of their government. It does this by expressing clear restrictions on the three braches of government laid out previously in the Constitution. As stated by Hugo Black, Associate Justice to the Supreme Court: The bill of rights protects people by clearly stating what government cant do by describing the procedures that government must follow when bringing its powers to bear against any person with a view to depriving him of his life, liberty, or property (Black 1960).' Each amendment either states what the government cannot do or limits its powers by providing certain procedures that it must abide by. To provide a few examples, one must take a closer look at some of these amendments. The First Amendment to the Constitution dictates that Congress shall make no law, which establishes a national religion, prohibits free speech or press, or which prevents the right to assemble or petition the government. In the language used, it expressly prohibits the legislative branch from making laws which would impose on the rights that were given to the people. According to Hugo Black, The Framers were well aware that the individual rights they sought to protect might be easily nullified if subordinated to the general powers granted to Congress. One of the reasons for adoption of the Bill of Rights was to prevent just that (Black 1960). The Third Amendment states that the right to be secure against unreasonable search and seizure shall not be infringed. Again, this amendment is laying down restrictions on what government has power to do. Amendment Six provides the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury, to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation, and to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have Assistance of Counsel for his defense. This amendment states that if you are accused of a crime, you must have certain rights reserved which the courts are obliged to uphold. Furthermore, it outlines regulations that they must follow in order to protect those rights, such as obtaining witnesses and providing an impartial jury. The Eighth Amendment prevents the government from imposing excessive bail or fines and says cruel or unusual punishments, shall .

Rebecca Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rebecca - Essay Example Sometimes, a good performance is able to give a solid ground for further reflection on some notions, the raise of awareness regarding their meanings and consequences and changes of person’s attitude. One of the most attended by celebrities show that is often criticized regarding its appropriateness and positive impact on young viewers is the extremely famous Broadway performance created by Jeff Marx and Robert Lopez that is called Avenue Q. The show represents a courageous decision of its creators to use puppets that dance and sing about the problems of unemployment, racial segregation, pornography, sexual preferences and others. It is important to stress that a profession of puppeteer is not very popular nowadays; therefore, due to the unconventional format of the performance, the show has managed to receive increased attention among critics. Despite the coverage of rather frank and piquant topics, Avenue Q is considered to be extremely realistic, educational and arresting. S tarting from 2003, the show had won numerous prestigious awards, including Drama Desk Award, Tony Award, Theatre World Award and even Grammy. The success and popularity of the show has also been supplemented and influenced by attendance of such world celebrities as Hilary Swank, Tom Hanks, Danny DeVito, Janet Jackson, Martin Lawrence, David Schimmer, Tony Shalhoub and many others. The performance resembles the scenic adaptation of childish TV series â€Å"Sesame Street†, whose main characters experience strong emotions and solve mature and serious problems. The authors made a successful attempt to create a musical first of all for grown-ups but with a clear emphasis on its instructive function ensured for young audience. The show tells a story about a guy named Princeton who has recently graduated from college and whose plans for the future are full of hopes and dreams. However, reflecting over his position displayed in the song â€Å"What Do You Do with a B.A. in Englishâ⠂¬ , the hero realizes that received education does not guarantee stability and reliable perspectives in his life. Being anticipated and inspired by positive changes, Princeton moves to New York but the only place where he can find an affordable apartment turns out to be the Avenue Q. There, he makes acquaintances with new friends who also try to get by in exhausting megalopolis. Sharing own experiences and feelings, they all strive to find a proper job, realize their life goal and most importantly find the true love. All characters are fascinating; they manage to captivate audience with their versatility and uniqueness. At the same time, the story of each hero is quite plain and trivial which also helps viewers to feel the reality of presented events. For example, moving to a new apartment, Princeton is introduced to such characters as the teaching assistant Kate Monster; the recently fired comedian Brian; his fiancee Christmas Eve, a therapists who has trouble with finding at lea st one patient; Trekkie Monster, a guy who day after day spends online watching porn videos; the house manager, Gary Coleman whose image has been created as an imitation and parody of American actor known by his roles in sitcoms; Lucy the slut and others (Avenue Q). The Avenue Q community consists of ten characters and only three of them are human beings meanwhile

The Godmother of Drug Trafficking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Godmother of Drug Trafficking - Essay Example A lady employing a violent approach to her business, Griselda Blanco caused ripples in the southern region. She also went by the name; Verucca (a tough and fearless woman) among her dug related enemies (Davies 124). It is the violent nature of her business transaction that caused the intentional deaths of more than 200 people. The deaths show that Blanco was not hesitant to ward off any person who threatened her business. She did not tolerate any unwanted competition or betrayal during her reign. Those who would betray her were punished accordingly (Davis 124). At the tender age of her life, she is alleged to have kidnapped, asked for a ransom and firing a shot the kidnapped child from the well off part of her slum dwelling. At 14, she became a prostitute but later moved to the United States where her drug trafficking business kicked off. This history documents the inappropriate background that aided her ruthless and violent nature. Bob Polombo, US DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration) agent said that â€Å"I just think it was inherent to Griselda Blanco. This goes back to her life, the way she was brought up. She was just a violent person† (Brown 96). Her first dwelling while in the United States was New York. She did not last long as she was eventually indicted bur fled to Miami where her business remained rooted for a long time. Among the most vivid case of her ruthlessness, the infamous bout with her rival drug dealer stands out. She commanded her gang to head to the Dadeland Mall (the busiest area in Miami) in her villainous white Econoline van to face off with the rival. (Swartz 193). The van was actually a â€Å"war wagon† because â€Å"its sides were covered by quarter-inch steel with gun-ports cut into them† (Brown 96). More so, the violent exchange of fire occurred in broad daylight. Ingram Mac-10 machine pistols and Baretta automatic handguns were widely used in this confrontation. (Swartz 193). What followed was a massacre that puzzled the Dade county coroner. He is quoted as describing it as â€Å"Swiss Cheese†. The continuation of her reign as the most fierce drug lord was facilitated by her most trusted commander tagged â€Å"Rivas†. She entrusted Rivas with heading her group of killers known as Pisteleros. (Riano-Alcala 42). Pisteleros and the subsidiary group known a s the Motorcycle assassins were the main enforcers to the smuggling work. With this group, she would organize a network of women who were mostly widows and use them in smuggling the cocaine all over the United States. She created a lingerie so that her female traffickers would ferry her drugs without being detected (Surovell 4). By protecting her business empire, she had massive success as her operations expanded greatly in the 1970s. She received large quantities of cocaine from Colombia. She was able to rake in large amounts of money (Brown 96). She eventually became one of the richest self made millionaires as well as the most powerful in Miami and its environment. The â€Å"black widow† was the name that she was branded due to her murderous instinct towards her husbands. (Smitten 2). Her sociopathic behaviors towards her husbands put in total disregard all the achievements of the pairs. Her admirers who dared to cross her path were not spared. She would either hire profes sional contract killers to execute the murders or do it herself. The most inhumane murder was that of Trujillo. Trujillo was eventually not credited by Blanco for introducing her to the dangerous world of guns, murderers, and the drugs in the Medellin Cartel (Gugliota 8). Although he taught her all the useful tricks of drug trafficking, he was a victim of her wrath over a small business dispute (Surovell 4).

Purposes of Criminal Sentencing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Purposes of Criminal Sentencing - Essay Example Moral philosophers take into consideration the goals of punishment, the values promoted, and its purpose (Purpose of, 2004). While sociologists are concerned with â€Å"what punishment is actually intended for, and the nature of penal systems† (Hudson, 1996, as cited in Purpose of, 2004, p. 105), criminologists concentrate on the penalties for offenses and the policy measures pertinent to the punishment (Purpose of, 2004). Previous penal theories leaned more on retribution that put the moral blame on the offender without regard to future reformation of conduct of the offender (Hudson 1996, as cited in Purpose of, 2004). While punishment may be to prevent crime to some and to punish for others (Hudson, 1963, as cited in Purpose of, 2004), the court balances these factors in imposing a punishment (Purpose of, 2004). ... Although the present system in the US has shifted to reformation of the convict, the justification for sanction based on vengeance still remains (Barnes, 1999). The incarcerated convict can also be deterred from the commission of the same act or any other crime if rehabilitated or incapacitated (Barnes, 1999). The two primary theories that dominate criminal punishment are utilitarianism and retribution (Purpose of, 2004). Utilitarianism expounds that laws should provide maximum happiness for society, and since crime and punishment are not consistent with happiness, they should be placed at the minimum level (Punishment, 2011). Thus, under this theory, the infliction of punishment is only that which can prevent commission of crimes in the future (Punishment, 2011). The traditional model in criminal theory is that of deterrence, which is considered a sub-category (Barnes, 1999) or a derivative (Purpose of, 2004) of the utilitarian theory. According to the utilitarian view, punishment i s justifiable if it promotes the interest of society, and maintains social order (Rawls, 1955, as cited in Barnes, 1999). The concept of deterrence posits that apprehension and punishment of a criminal informs society that an act is punishable, and thus deters members of society from committing it (Barnes, 1999). General deterrence focuses on the total criminal behavior, as opposed to specific deterrence which targets individual criminals (Barnes, 1999). As a general deterrent, there must be an existing crime and punishment in order to deter others from committing the same (Barnes, 1999). This follows the view that a threat of being punished would deter individuals

Power electornic lab 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Power electornic lab 4 - Essay Example Two types of power inverters are used according to the applications; voltage source inverters (VSI) and current source inverters (CSI) (Sen, 1997). A voltage source inverter (VSI) converts a DC voltage into an AC voltage, which has a distinctive square wave formation. In the similar manner, a CSI converts the DC into AC with a distinctive square wave formation. In the experiment, a further discussion, calculation and results are discussed to evaluate the functional characteristics of the voltage source inverter. The waveform generated by the voltage source inverter in given below. UPS (Uninterruptible power supply) make utilization of the DC/AC inverter with batteries as the DC source. UPS is mostly utilized as the emergency backup power to maintain the data in computer data systems, maintain undisturbed communication channel, emergency power for homes and offices and selective machines at industries in case of primary power source loss. Ups are also used to correct the condition of under voltage and over voltage in electrical systems. The safety function is used in computer data systems, medical instruments and systems UPS is also referred to reduce harmonic distortion. In this experiment, UPS is tested with different kinds of resistive and inductive loads. UPS is evaluated according to the dissimilar load circumstances in the experiment. In this experiment, both simulation UPS investigation software as well as the real physical investigation in inverter systems is carried to evaluate the performance characteristics of the UPS. The two tests will then be compared to evaluate the operation of the UPS. It is quite clear from the above results that as the load increase the output voltage of the UPS drops. On the other hand, with similar inductive and resistive loads, the voltage drop is more with inductive load that is about 6.64

The Color Purple Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Color Purple Film - Essay Example Theme of the film Color Purple The film capitalized on its ability to depict scenes visually. One problem, however, was that the plot of the novel was too long to fit into a reasonable time scale for a movie. This led to some important parts of the book being removed. One important part was missing in the end. In the book, Celie standing up to Albert was the turning point of the story, as it forced Albert to reevaluate his personality. The movie left this crucial transformation out. This would explain why black men were angered by the movie. (Denby, 56) Albert was shown in the immigration office, but he was never shown to have any remorse for the way he treated Celie, and that left his character incomplete. The film shows that Shug Avery made a tremendous impact on Celie's life. She taught Celie how to love, laugh, and live. Some parts of this novel are hard to read and understand because they are letters written by Celie but Walker does a very good job letting the reader know what t he characters are feeling. The film goes after the componential features that made the book thriving. Among these features, the most prominent is well-built and well knitted character growth. Whoopi Goldberg and Oprah Winfrey left no stone unturned in playing leading roles as Celie and Sofia. Danny Glover was also splendid, and along with these main characters, the supporting cast, too, did an evenly inspiring task. The plot is fabricated deep into the chain of events and the characters all through, while never holding back even a single drop of sentiment. Such stuff keeps the audience judging every prospective occurrence and counter checking every facet. Its levels of story lines make possible the series of events fascinating. It verifies that there's certain more to Celie's life... The film The Color Purple originally written by Alice Walker was directed by Steven Spielberg and its screenplay was written by Menno Meyjes. The film was made in 1985. Alice Walker's novel "The Color Purple" and afterwards its film adaptation by Steven Spielberg's have raised gigantic and hot debate between media and African-American community. A great part of this controversy covers even the extensive belief that both the novel and the film portray black male characters with a partial and unconstructive approach. They are typified as stereotypical tyrant, abusers, rights usurpers and rapists who are just there to dictate and oppress women in their life. This is, if analyzed thoroughly, not the first time Walker has been charged associated with gender and racial controversy pertaining to the black male characters depicted in her novels. Walker, in her own defense, has stated several times that women all too often are abused by the men they love. She adds that all of the characters i n her novels, male and female, represent people that she has known throughout her life.

Homosexuality in China Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Homosexuality in China - Research Paper Example As a result, there is a possibility that the number of such relationships may be increasing in the country. In recognition of this fact, this paper will examine the issue of homosexuality in China. This will be done with a close reference to the short story "The Bridegroom" by Ha Jin. The story is about a strange marriage between Beina and Baowen Huang who unexpectedly proposes to her to the shock of everyone who did not expect such a handsome young man would think of marrying her despite her â€Å"stocky and stout† figure as her guardian and the narrator describes (p 472). However, as months go by in their marriage, there are no signs of her having a child. It is only after eight months that Beina’s guardian discovers that her daughter married a man with homosexual orientations without feelings for women. It is also surprising that her daughter was seemingly comfortable with this situation. From this story, we are able to discover that homosexuality was an ancient practice in China but because of various issues, the men and women involved did not come out openly with it. One of the major challenges that the gay society faced in the story by Jin is that of a legal perspective towards their sexual orientation as will be discussed below. The legal environment was not favorable for the survival of the homosexuals. It is even to the surprise of the family members of Beina when it is discovered that Baowen and his â€Å"Buddies† were meeting at night in a club (Jin 474). The fear by the men or members of the gay community in the country to come out in the open was founded on the fact that they knew that their practice had legal implications. As a matter of fact, when the inspector of police in the story breaks the news of arrest to the families of the men in the story, he talks of sentencing the men â€Å"from six months to five years...†

A childs education is increasingly dependent on the wealth and wishes Essay

A childs education is increasingly dependent on the wealth and wishes of their parents, rather than the ability of pupils themselves. Discuss - Essay Example It is true that a child’s education is increasingly dependent on the wealth and wishes of their parents, rather than the ability of pupils themselves? How accessible is education in the United Kingdom? What sorts of conflicts does the inaccessibility of education produce? These questions and many more will be addressed and applied to this holistic analysis of education in the United Kingdom. Education is supposed to be meritocratic in nature and the means through which people break through the cumbersome social barriers of class and privilege. Is it true that education is meritocratic and based upon the notion that education allows people to advance, progress and move forward in life? A basic premise of the sociology of education is that it promotes greater equality and is based upon merit and equal opportunity for all. The expansion of education in the past two hundred years in the United Kingdom remains an incredible advance which has purportedly increased social equality to the betterment of society. Less than one hundred years ago, the educational institutions of this country were effectively closed to women, ethnic minorities and a whole host of other groups. Incredibly, educational opportunities were denied to more than 50% of the population for centuries. The sociology of education emphatically argues that public schooling and universal education promotes social equality, social cohesion and is characterised by opportunities for progress and social growth. A fundamental underpinning of the sociology of education is that it is meritoocratically based and that it promotes great equlaity. Now that educational access has expanded across this country, is it true that education promotes social equality and is based upon the merits of individual students? According to scholars Persell & Cookson in their study of

Gillingham FCs Essay Example for Free

Gillingham FCs Essay Scott Jones is a 27 year old, mediocre footballer, who plays for First Division club Gillingham. Gillingham are an average side who are likely to be in the First Division for a long while as they dont possess the quality to reach the Premiership, but they are too good to be relegated to Division two. Scott enjoys his job as a footballer due to the fact that he is getting paid a lot of money. He does enjoy his football, but the main reason he is a footballer is because he wants lots of money. Scott got recognised as a good footballing talent when he caught the eye of one of Gillingham FCs local scouts. Scott was playing for his Sunday league team at the age of 18, and gave an excellent performance. He had no knowledge of the scouts presence, until the manager said that the scout thought he had serious potential and wanted to sign him for Gillingham. Scott did sign, and within a few months of him joining Gillingham FC, Scott made the first team, and became a regular from there on. Scott has been at Gillingham for 9 years now and has become one of their best players. Scott enjoys playing for Gillingham FC but little does he know that his career is about to take a huge turn. Scott sat anxiously outside the managers office. He adjusted his tie, which he wasnt used to wearing, and sat there thinking to himself what this meeting could be about. He was confused as to whether he had done something wrong or whether perhaps the club wanted to extend his contract. He had no idea and was eager to get it out of the way. Scottie, do you want to come in? We need to have a little chat said Phil Taylor, the Manager of Gillingham Football Club. Scott stood up and entered the room nervously. Now Scott, we wanted your opinion on this and wanted to see how you felt before we did anything. Weve had an offer come in from Fulham for you. It is very generous, for both the club, and for you. You will be able to get a very good contract from them, and youll be able to play Premiership football. What do you say? Do you want to stay, or are you happy to leave? said Phil. Scott, who felt relieved that he wasnt in trouble, then replied Sounds good to me. If its good for the club then Ill go. Scott was extremely excited about the prospect of playing in the Premiership, but he would have to wait 2 months until he could sign, as the transfer window was closed. Scott was even happier about the fact that he would be getting paid an awful lot more money, his wages were being doubled. Scott felt on top of the world! As he was still contracted to Gillingham for 2 more months, Scott still had to train with them; however, he didnt have to play for them as Fulham made an agreement with Gillingham as part of the deal. Scott enjoyed training, even more so now that he knew he was moving to Fulham next season. Scott still trained hard, but didnt take it as serious as usual, as all he could think about was all that money he would be getting. Right lads, well do some 5 a side. Do some stretches then get yourselves into teams said the manager. Scott just wanted to play 5 a side and so didnt bother doing any stretches. This was a silly thing to do. Halfway through the game, Scott was running with the ball at his feet, and just as he was going to shoot, his studs got caught in the ground and he twisted his knee. It looked incredibly painful, and Scott was in agony. The Physio came on and took him back to the medical room, to see what he had done. It was very serious and so Scott had to be taken to hospital. About an hour after taking a look at Scott and doing some tests, the doctor came back with his diagnosis. Im afraid, its bad news. Youve torn cruciate knee ligaments in your right knee and you have also broken your ankle. This will take an enormously long time to recover from, and there is a 50% chance you will not be able to continue your career as a footballer, if indeed you do recover Scotts heart sank. His career was over, as was his dream of playing in the Premiership. At the age of 27 Scott would only have about 5 years maximum left to play as a footballer, but now, he would be out for at least 2 years, and if he did recover, he would be past his best. Scott was absolutely devastated. He would have to stay in hospital over night while they did more tests and then in a week, he would have to undergo a major operation. For the next week, Scott just stayed at home, in bed, thinking of what he could have become and how much money he could have got. He felt sorry for himself but he was also beating himself up thinking that maybe this whole thing would never have happened had he done his stretches before playing 5 a side. Scott was distraught and he had never been so down in his life. He was thinking, what can he do now?

Ethical and moral issues at Phoenix University Essay Example for Free

Ethical and moral issues at Phoenix University Essay The university students are facing many issues in their lives and some of them include depression, stress, relationship difficulties, academic problems, among others. Some of the students are required to learn and at the same time work, integrating these two is not an easy task for them. Some course notes are very difficult to understand and require much discipline in order to assimilate the content. This has therefore resulted to poor academic performance from the part time students. Even though the time spent in class by these students is normally short, they have little time to read and revise. Furthermore, the university examination is the same for all the students, both part time and full time. Treating all the students to be equal is not morally right since most of the full time students are young and can assimilate the theories and concepts with much ease, while the adult students take time to assimilate. This is because the adult students have many responsibilities regarding their families and their job tasks which are crowding their minds and therefore cannot focus properly in their studies. Most of the young students have few responsibilities thereby giving them more time to concentrate on their studies and this leads to good academic results. The class lessons provided by the university usually takes about two hours and can be scheduled to take place in the daytime or at night depending on when the students are available. But in some cases, this does not apply; the academic counselor can change the class schedule to a different day or night without the students consent. Sometimes the instructors may not be available and this therefore forces the academic counselor to shift the class to another time. The academic counselor will inform the students about the class changes, but he or she does not give them an option to refuse or accept. The fact that the counselor can change the class schedule without the students consent is unethical. The changes made may sometimes require the students to change their work schedules or miss the classes. Changing the work schedule may not be possible sometimes since it depends on the job type, there are some jobs which are not flexible thereby leaving the students with no option but to miss the classes. By not attending the class lesson these students are left behind in notes and catching up is really a hard task since the notes usually pile up as they misses more lessons. This therefore may lead to the students failing the final examination since the examination schedule cannot be changed to accommodate them. The university does not allow adult students to skip some courses they have done in the past and this is not ethical. There are some courses a student may have done and passed well in a different college, but this university does not allow them to continue with their studies unless they do these courses again. To repeat a course requires time and money, therefore the students are forced to pay more and to find extra time to attend the classes. Some students may not have the extra time to attend these classes because their time schedules are full of job tasks, family responsibilities and even other class lessons. In addition, there are those who do not have enough money and because of this requirement they cannot enroll into the university. For these poor students, the opportunity for further studies is therefore taken away by this requirement and is given to rich ones. The university has put in place the Learning Teams to help the online distance learning students. These teams are usually composed of three to six adult students and every week these students meet for about five hours in order to discuss and analyze problems in the researches done, case studies, among others. Their courses are usually designed to integrate group and individual activities with the help of an instructor whose role is to give guidance and advice. These learning teams were developed to promote technical and intellectual knowledge, enhance valuable skills in negotiation and teamwork and even to provide a place where new ideas can be developed and utilized (University of Phoenix, 2009). However, when students enroll into the university, they are not told about the Learning Teams and how they work. Most students enroll into the university without a clue about these Learning Teams. They only learn about them when they are already at the university and this has resulted to some ethical problems. These Learning Teams are only located in the United States of America (U. S. A. ) and their meetings are scheduled at specific times. For distance learning students they have become a burden, since time is not universal it varies depending on the location. Some of their meetings occur during the day while in others at night. This can therefore lead to some students sleeping in their workplace while others are forced to go to work late, yet not considering that the job is paying for the studies. Sleeping in the workplace or going to work late has some regrettable consequences, it may lead to the students losing their jobs and therefore not being able to afford the university fees. Without their work some students will be forced to drop out of the university because of fees problems. Furthermore, if they do not drop out they will have other problems such as lack of bus fare, among others, which will be due to insufficient funds for their personal needs. In addition, to participate in the Learning Teams requires books and some students cannot afford to purchase them because they are expensive. Paying the university fees and buying books can be stressful to some people especially when their wages are low and have families to care for. Learning without the required books can lead to poor academic performance from the students since they cannot do their own further learning and even counter check their course notes. Furthermore, for those who can afford they are sometimes required to pay more for shipping expenses since some books are not available in their locality but are found in U.  S. A. The fact that all the books are not provided by the university in the Learning Teams and yet they expect the students to learn and understand like the full time students makes it unethical. It is the obligation of the university to ensure that all the books required for every course are available and accessible online from the library by all the students regardless of where they are. Otherwise, the course should not be provided if the books available are not enough for all the students. The Learning Teams meetings usually last for four to five hours whether in daytime or at night. Sitting in a meeting for five hours continuously is tiresome especially when someone has been working throughout the day or night. Concentrating for long hours on a topic is not an easy task and the fact that you have no other time to learn makes it worse. There are students who read and understand theories and concepts in a very short time period while others take time to understand them. The fact that the students have no option but to take part in these teams is not ethical. They should be given an opportunity to choose between long hours or subsequent short hours since people learn and understand things differently. In addition, they should be allowed to choose whether to participate in these teams or not and if they do participate they should be given a chance to choose their teammates. This is because the university can make the mistake of putting a student into a group composed of students who are under-qualified. For example, a third year student may be grouped with second year students without knowing, only to understand later that his or her teammates are from a lower grade. This mistake can be costly to the student since it will waste his or her time and money and this cannot be recovered. Furthermore, the long sitting hours do not give students enough time to sleep and we understand getting enough sleep is essential for the body. Working for more than eight hours and then attending the meetings for close to five hours, may lead to stress or depression. In addition, the students are required to do research and case studies before attending the scheduled meetings and this needs time in order to collect the data. In taking part in these meetings and doing research, a student is left with very little time to spend with his family and for other social factors which are important to him such as hanging out with friends, taking your family out for a picnic, and many others. Cases of depression and stress have increased in the university and this can be attributed to the coursework overload experienced by the students. The university has put in place a counseling department which is dealing with the students affairs. Students facing academic and psychological problems are therefore required to get counseling or advice from this department. However, the counselors are facing some ethical difficulties in their department. Majority of the students do not trust them because they do not ensure confidentiality in their services. Maintaining confidentiality is a difficult task for these counselors, especially when the parents, relatives, or even friends are looking for some information about a certain student they care about. This has therefore led to very few students using these services since most of them feel their dignity and privacy is not protected and respected. In addition, the counseling department is not composed of counselors from all the cultures at the university. It is therefore not possible for the department to serve all the students effectively since some of the students might be from cultures which are unique and composed of very few people. These students are therefore locked out from accessing the counseling services when facing problems related to their cultures.

HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry

HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale Findings show extensive existing research in the field of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and how they might benefit an organisations business performance. Academics suggest that there is a series or bundle of human resource (HR) practices which are of great benefit to an organisation, for example, selection and recruitment, training and development, without giving any consideration to other contingency factors, such as the size, structure or varying labour markets of an organisation (Pfeffer, 1994a; 1998b; Huselid, 1995 cited in Gonzalez and Tacorante, 2004). This is known as the best practice approach to HRM. There is also a different contingent approach, known as the best-fit approach, which is dependent upon the organisations strategic focus, suggesting that it is more beneficial for an organisation to use HR practices which are more aligned with its strategies and external environment (Legge in Storey, 2001). These two approaches will be discussed in more detail in Cha pter 2. Although the literature in the field of HRM shows a positive correlation between employee perceptions of HRM fairness and employee acceptance and satisfaction with HRM decisions (Bowen et al., 1999), there is a gap in the research when it comes to a direct link between HRM and staff turnover and more research is needed to support an assertion that good HRM within an organisation leads to a greater retention of front office staff. Although the hospitality industry has experienced almost continuous growth since the 1900s, poor staff retention has always been a problem in the industry. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (2009) state that the highest levels of labour turnover are found in the service sector and in the hotel and catering industry in particular (www.cipd.co.uk, 2009). Research points to various reasons for this such as lack of training, development and career opportunities. The term front office refers to organisations departments which come into contact with their customers such as the reception area of a hotel, which might consist of a receptionist, reception supervisor and perhaps a revenue or finance manager in some smaller establishments. It is the authors own experience, from working in the hotel industry, that many front office employees possess certain characteristics which render them more susceptible to a high level of turnover and examples of these will be discussed below. In addition, the author has found that front office employees generally do not receive the same HR configuration as some of their counterparts. For these reasons, the author has seen fit to investigate further the extent to which poor HRM practices affect turnover for front office staff in the hospitality industry. 1.2 Aim The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate two of the main problems in the hospitality industry: poor HRM practices and high staff turnover and the existence of a direct link between these working on the hypothesis that sound HRM practices should significantly reduce staff turnover. 1.3 Objectives To critically review current HRM practices in the hospitality industry, looking specifically at selection and recruitment and training and development, which are seen to have the greatest impact on staff turnover, highlighting the reasons why poor HRM practices might affect staff retention. To provide a definition of staff turnover and discuss the main causes of high staff turnover within the hospitality industry. To investigate the characteristics of front office staff, looking closely at the work of Lepack and Snell (1999a; 2002b) regarding Human Resource Architecture, with the aim of showing that front office staff receive a different HR configuration to other employees who might be seen as more important to an organisation. 1.4 Methodology Research is briefly defined as a form of systematic enquiry that contributes to knowledge (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008:1) and in the case of this dissertation was used to identify new and better ways of managing within the hospitality industry. After reflecting on experience the author decided to investigate further the area of HRM practices and staff turnover, once the research area was decided the author then had to choose the research method which best suited the research question. Saunders suggests that most research questions are answered using some combination of secondary and primary research (Saunders et al., 2003:189). However, the author of this dissertation takes the view that that there is sufficient secondary data available to achieve the aims and objectives stated above and it is therefore based solely on secondary research drawing on existing sources alone. Work by academics in the area of HRM, for example, Lashley (1998); Boxall (2008); Hoque (2000); Purcell (2001a; 2008b); Torrington, Hall and Taylor (1991); Mullins (1998); Lucas (2004); Armstrong (1987a; 1992b; 2000c); Storey (1992a; 1995b; 2001c); and Guest (1987a; 1989b) will be analysed to provide a base to the theory of HRM. Data from government sources, for example, People1st, will be used as further evidence to back up the authors findings. The main advantage of secondary research is that it saves time and money (Ghauri and Gronhaugh, 2002). Secondary data can be obtained much more quickly than primary data and time is the only cost incurred. Secondary data facilitates the analysis of larger data sets, such as those collected by government surveys (Saunders et al, 2003). It is readily available and generally of proven reliability. Stewart and Kimes (1993) suggest that the quality of data in secondary research is likely to be far superior to that obtained through primary research as secondary data is permanent and more open to public scrutiny. Secondary information offers relatively quick and inexpensive answers to many questions and is almost always the point of departure for primary research (Stewart et al., 1993:1). However, it is important to recognise that secondary data does have a number of disadvantages. It may well have been collected for a specific purpose differing, either substantively or in emphasis, from the research question and this dissertations objectives. It might also reflect the attitudes of those collecting it rather than offer an objective picture of reality (Saunders et al., 2003:203). In addition, the secondary data may be outdated. Wrenn et al (2007) suggest that old information may not necessarily be bad information, but that up-to-date information is an absolute necessity (Wrenn et al., 2007:73). The author has attempted to overcome weaknesses of the secondary research method by using secondary data that is both current and closely related in emphasis to this dissertations title, aim and objectives. As the author aimed to analyse a large data set instead of concentrating on a smaller sample, for example, one organisation in particular, it was decided that secondary research would be more appropriate for this type of study. 1.5 Structure Chapter 2 reviews the literature on HRM history, approaches, theories, strategies and practices. Views of prominent academics in the field of HRM are summarised, critically analysed and evaluated. Chapter 3 defines the different types of staff turnover which occur within an organisation, identifying drivers and costs associated with high staff turnover. Characteristics of the hospitality industry, which may make it particularly vulnerable to poor staff retention, are identified. Chapter 4 reviews some of the key HRM practices being used in the hotel industry, focusing on selection and recruitment methods and training and development techniques, explaining how they affect staff turnover. Red Carnation Hotels are used as an example to show the impact the implementation of an effective training programme has on levels of employee turnover. Chapter 5 investigates Lepack and Snells (1999a; 2002b) work on Human Resource Architecture, showing that staff turnover levels in different departments might be attributable to different HR configurations. Chapter 6 concludes that good HRM practices can greatly reduce staff turnover and recommendations for improved staff turnover are made. CHAPTER 2 THE THEORY BEHIND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SOME KEY PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on HRM theory, providing a brief overview of HRMs history and its similarities with personnel management. The hard and soft approaches to HRM are compared and contrasted, as are the best fit and best practice strategies. 2.2 Human Resource Management HRM is a management strategy which aims positively to influence individual ability and motivation and afford employees the opportunity to perform to the best of their abilities. (Blumberg and Pringle, 1982; Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager, 1993 cited in Boxall and Purcell, 2008). Whilst Boella and Goss-Turner (2005) attempt to define HRM simply as a strategic management function aimed at determining and achieving managerial goals, Storey (2001) provides the clearest definition of HRM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. (Storey 2001:6) HRM emerged as a new concept in the 1980s in the USA, promoted by such academics as Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills and Walton (1984) from the Harvard School and other influential writers who argued in favour of a more comprehensive and strategic approach to an organisations workforce (Armstrong, 1992). It quickly spread to the UK. Bratton and Gold (2003) state that HRM assumed new prominence due to concerns about global competition, the internationalization of technology and the productivity of labour (Bratton and Gold, 2003:4), all of which required managers to change the way in which organisations used their human resources and managed the employment relationship. The increased influence of trade unions and the continued growth of organisations in general, led to greater importance being placed on the personnel function of management. Prompted by economic trends and views of influential writers at the time, such as Pascale and Athos (1981), Peters and Waterman (1982), Kanter (1984) and Porter (1985), along with those from the Harvard School, chief executives began to realise that to gain, and retain, competitive advantage, human resources must be properly managed. Cuming (1993) suggests that employees are in fact the most important resource available to an organisation if organisational success is to be achieved. HRM enables an organisation to achieve goals through its workforce, whilst integrating human resource policies and business plans. Effective HRM should create a working environment in which all employees can be utilised to their full capacity and potential. It plays an important role in building the capabilities of a workforce and improving the general climate of employee attitudes (Boxall and Purcell, 2008) and aims to ensure commitment from individuals in order to achieve success for the organisation (Guest 1987). Academics have conflicting views on the meaning of HRM, some doubting its existence altogether. Fowler (1987), for example, believes that HRM is nothing more than a construct largely invented by academics and popularised by consultants (Fowler 1987 cited in Armstrong, 1999:586), while Woods (1999) claims that HRM is a paradox which has never really been mastered. Many academics are unable to make a clear distinction between HRM and personnel management (Armstrong, 1987; Sisson and Bach, 1989a; 1994b, 2000c; Legge, 1995; Torrington and Hall, 1998), while others are able to easily identify differences between them. The best way to conceptualise them, however, is as a continuum with personnel management at one end and HRM at the other (Wilson, 2001:47). Their differences and similarities can be found summarised in Table 1. 2.3 Hard and Soft HRM There are two approaches to HRM, each of which aims to provide an organisation with a competitive advantage. Storey (1992) and Guest (1987) were the first writers to make the distinction suggesting that the emphasis could either be on human or resources. In the UK, the two approaches are known as hard and soft HRM. The hard approach to HRM stresses the need for business orientated style, with an emphasis on productivity, efficiency in the utilisation of human resources and the achievement of business goals (Boella and Goss-Turner, 2005:23). Nickson (2007) describes the hard approach as instrumental and economically rational (Nickson 2007:9), aiming to gain a competitive advantage whilst keeping labour costs to a minimum. Armstrong (1992) suggests that the hard approach to HRM treats employees like any other resource, for instance land or capital, to be used as managers see fit. However, this approach does not necessarily mean that employees will be treated badly. Marchington and Wilkinson (2002) suggest that if labour is in short supply or is central to the achievement of organisational goals, employees may be treated well. For the hard approach to be most effective, the staffing structure of an organisation must mirror its needs. It is essential that an organisation has the right number of staff in the right place at the right time (Wilson, 2005). The HRM practice of human resource planning is therefore crucial (Mullins, 1998). The alternative approach, soft HRM, stresses the human aspects of HRM (Price, 2007) focussing particularly on communication and motivation. Training and development programmes as well as commitment strategies are used with the aim of producing highly skilled employees in order to gain a competitive advantage (Bratton and Gold, 2003). A soft HRM approach puts staff at the centre of determining and realising strategic objectives and staff are led rather than managed to achieve organisational success. Storey (1992) states that Soft HRM sees employees as a valuable resource whose competencies, skills and attitudes are to be appropriately nurtured (Storey, 1992:28). The organisation and its workforce work together towards a competitive advantage, the organisation aiming to improve the quality of its staff in the hope that it will reap the rewards of their development. The soft approach is based on the premise that if employees feel they have been treated well, they will do all they can to achieve organisational goals. Although some authors, for example Sisson (1994), argue that organisations claiming to use a soft HRM approach may just be using the language to disguise what is actually a hard approach, similarities have been drawn between a soft HRM approach and personnel management, as organisations use employees to achieve a competitive advantage through developing their skills and loyalty. 2.4 The best practice or best fit approach to HRM There are two fundamental HR strategies which are used to ensure that the effects of HR practices are maximised. The best practice approach is generally agreed to comprise a list of tangible practices, with best practice HRM or bundles of practices having the greatest impact on performance (Pfeffer,1994a; 1998b; Huselid,1995; Wood, 1995; Patterson et al, 1998; Guest, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Best practice approach is based on the assumption that there is a set of best HRM practices and that adopting them will inevitably lead to superior organisational performance. (Armstrong 2000:135) The best fit model on the other hand is based on the principle that HR strategy will be more effective when appropriately integrated within the specific firm and environmental context (Boxall and Purcell, 2001) Writers suggest that there is a bundle of practices essential to the HR effective strategy of any organisation. These include practices discussed in more detail below, such as selection and recruitment, and training and development. Others may be more marginal as they do not necessarily have general application, for instance, family friendly policies, profit related pay and share ownership (Guest, 2001; Torrington et al, 1999a; 2002b; 2005c). The importance of deploying these practices in the correct manner must, however, be stressed. Simply employing them without the correct management may have a negative effect on an organisation and its retention of human resources. Critics of the best practice strategy argue that, as organisations vary in size, compete in different labour markets and have varying market strategies, what works for one organisation might not necessarily work as well for another. Organisations work systems are highly idiosyncratic (Becker et al, 1997 cited in Ingham, 2007:78) with optimum results only being achieved if practices are tailored carefully to each individual situation. Larger organisations, for instance, are more likely than smaller entities to adopt more sophisticated staffing and training procedures and to have a more structured workforce with more specialised jobs and defined career hierarchies. They inevitably require therefore more formalised HR practices to facilitate the management of larger numbers (Schuler and Jackson 1995). The concept of fit between business and HR policy is based on the assumption that if HRM is more contingent with the external environment and an organisations business strategy, it will lead to higher performance and competitive advantage (Legge cited in Storey, 2001). The best fit approach ensures that HR strategies are aligned with the culture and operational process of an organisation as well as the external environment. Armstrong suggests that this is one of the most important aims in a development programme (Armstrong 2000:132). 2.5 HRM practices Recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer 1992; Woods and Mcaulay 1989; Wagner 1991; Wheelhouse 1989) and training and development opportunities (Hogan 1992; Himestra 1990; Conrade et al., 1994) have been identified as having the biggest impact on staff turnover and are explored in detail in Chapter 4. Mullins (1995) recognises that the aim of any organisation must be to select the best available staff in the first place, train and develop them and to retain them for a reasonable period of time (Mullins 1995:183). Through the use of various intervention processes, for example, recruitment and selection and training and development, an organisation can influence turnover (Mullins, 1995 cited Cheng and Brown, 1998:138). This is consistent with literature which suggests that the use of high performance work practices, including recruitment and selection procedures and training, are associated with lower labour turnover, greater productivity and corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995:635) However, before exploring recruitment and selection and training and development further it is important to mention some of the other key HRM practices used in the hospitality industry. HRM practices should cover five main areas: Staffing and recruitment; making sure that available jobs within an organisation are filled appropriately by staff with the required knowledge, experience, abilities and skills, whilst also deploying an effective retention programme. Rewards; carrying out regular appraisals and making sure that reward systems are in place as well as that staff benefit for achieving organisational goals. Employee development; ensuring that employees have the correct amount of training to enable them to do their job to the best of their abilities whilst enabling them to reach their full potential. Employee maintenance and job security; making sure that employees are working in a safe environment as well as offering support where redundancies are necessary. (Bratton and Gold, 1999; Mullins, 1998; Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas 2004) It is also suggested that HRM practices should include team working, employee involvement, liaisons with outside bodies (ACAS, HCTC and HCIMA), maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions (Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas, 2004, Mullins, 1998). 2.6 Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection is an important element of HRM in all organisations regardless of size, structure or sector (Marchington et al., 2005) and is critical to the long-term success of every hospitality business (Hayes et al., 2009). In terms of the hotel industry, Kelliher and Johnson (1987, 1997) have suggested that recruitment is, in fact, HRMs central function. Recruitment is the process of identifying candidates for current or future position vacancies. It is Those practices and activities carried out by the organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees (Barber, 1998:5 cited in Purcell et al., 2007:273; Hayes et al 2009:44). Selection is the process of choosing an individual for a current or future position vacancy (Hayes et al., 2009:44). Selection pares down the number of applicants while recruitment makes the paring down possible by producing the pool of candidates from whom new employees will be selected. However Recruitment and selection is generally viewed as an integrated function (Mullins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b) and is considered as such in this dissertation. The recruitment and selection process is the first point of contact for potential employees, who will tend to judge the organisation as a whole by the manner in which it is conducted, as well as the first stage in the HRM value chain. This leads some specialists to the view that: effective recruitment is likely to be the most critical human resource function for organisational success and survival (Taylor and Collins, 2000:304 cited in Boxall et al., 2007:273). Managers must address a number of questions before they begin the recruitment and selection process for it to have the desired effect, particularly whom to target, where, how (web, newspapers, job fairs) and when and what message to communicate (Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh and Stake, 2000 cited in Boxall et al, 2007:274). Literature suggests that recruitment and selection techniques have progressed from purely traditional techniques (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking) towards more strategic approaches (networking, internal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection) (Nankarvis and Debrah, 1995; Nankarvis, 1993b). There has also been an increase in recruiting through informal methods (word-of-mouth networks, recruit a relative or friend incentives, keep warm contacts with past employees and speculative applicants). Evidence suggests that such incentives strengthen job satisfaction for both recruiter and recruited (Purcell and Rowley, 2001:183), which in turn reduces staff turnover. There are a number of potential implications of poor selection decisions: Managers may have to waste time on disciplinary procedures or retraining poor performers as well as recruiting replacements for those leaving the job soon after commencing employment. These processes are both expensive and time-consuming, possibly diverting managers from other tasks. Poor recruitment and selection techniques do not only lead to under-qualified staff being employed. Some may be over-qualified and decide to leave soon after starting the job (Marchington et al., 2005). 2.7 Training and Development Training and Development is another key HRM practice which, if performed effectively, can reduce staff turnover within an organisation. Pepper (1984) defines training as the organized process concerned with the acquisition of capability or the maintenance of capability (Pepper, 1984:9-11 cited in Wilson, 1999:118). It is also viewed as a service provided by an organisation for its internal customers- its employees (Lovelock, 1989 cited in Chiang et al, 2005:101). Wexley and Latham (1991) introduce development into their definition suggesting that training and development is a planned effort by an organisation to facilitate the learning of job related behaviour on the part of its employees (Wexley and Latham, 1991:3). Development can relate to future requirements, such as preparation for promotion, whilst training generally relates to the here and now. For the purposes of this dissertation, however, the two terms are considered synonymous. Training strategies can include the employment of skilled trainers and use of training manuals or videos as support tools. Training can be hands-on or may take the form of classroom training. In some cases, the two strategies may be used together with feedback being provided through evaluation and appraisals (Chiang, 2005:101). Training may be either formal and take place outside the organisation or informal, on the job, where observation and instruction occurs on site (Jones, 2004:127). An effective training plan requires a good training site, a qualified trainer with clear objectives and methods as well as the necessary training tools and an evaluation strategy (Tanke, 1990). Paynes (2004) suggests that the aim of any training plan must be to ensure that staff have the required knowledge, skills, abilities and characteristics to confront new challenges 2.8 Conclusion HRM has been defined and the conflicting views have been discussed as have the different approaches and strategies used in order to provide an overview of the topic of HRM. An overview of the key HRM practices has also been provided and those most relevant to the hospitality industry have been split into key areas. Although selection and recruitment and training and development are suggested to have the greatest impact on employee turnover, the literature suggests that other key HRM practices, such as reward schemes, employee maintenance, liaisons with outside bodies, maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions, may also have a significant effect (Bratton and Gold 1999, Mullins 1998, Redman and Mathews 1998 and Lashley 1998). CHAPTER 3 STAFF TURNOVER 3.1 Introduction This Chapter explores the concept of staff turnover. Staff turnover is defined and a measure used to calculate turnover levels is discussed, along with its limitations. The characteristics of the Hospitality Industry are identified to show the extent to which they might make the industry more vulnerable to high staff turnover and turnover figures will be provided to support any assumptions that have been made. Some of the main reasons for high staff turnover in the industry will be considered looking in particular at some of the relevant push and pull factors. The cost and benefits of staff turnover will be weighed up to demonstrate the real need for the proper deployment of some of the HRM practices discussed in Chapter 2. 3.2 Definition of Staff Turnover The Hospitality Training Foundation (HtF) defines staff turnover as, the number of people leaving their job in a year as a percentage of the people employed in the industry (Hospitality Training Foundation, 1998 cited in Boella, 2005:178). Generally, turnover is measured over the financial year and is a measure of separations from an employing organisation. Organisations can use the following formula to calculate turnover rate in each department. Number of employees who left during the period X 100 Average number employed during the period Analysis of the turnover rate allows organisations not only to see whether they generally have a problem of high turnover but also to compare the rates of turnover between departments and to target workforce planning strategies accordingly. The calculation above is simple and is a broad indicator but it does have limitations. It does not reflect length of service of employees or whether or not the employer employs a few people at a high rate of pay or many people at a low rate of pay (Boella et al., 2000a; 2005b). The calculation also includes unavoidable turnover, for example, staff leaving due to illness, death or relocation and it may be beneficial to an organisation to create a measure which only measures avoidable turnover (Phillips, 2005). There are four types of turnover which occur within an organisation: voluntary; involuntary; functional and dysfunctional. The differences between them are summarised in Table 2. 3.3 Labour turnover in the Hospitality Industry Over the last 30 years the hospitality leisure and tourism sector has enjoyed a sustained period of growth and now accounts for nearly 5% of the UKs total economic output, employing 2 million people, 1/14 jobs in the UK. Labour turnover across the sector is the highest of all sectors of the economy, rising from 30% in 2005 to 31% in 2008 with recruitment and development of new staff costing an estimated  £414 million in 2008/2009 (Wisdom, 2009). A minority of employees in the hospitality industry are drawn from the primary labour market and as such are generally committed to the industry and sometimes to a particular sector within it. Riley (1996) estimates that 6% of jobs in the hospitality industry are managerial positions, 8% supervisory and 22% craft (Riley, 1996 cited in Kusluvan, 2003). The industry relies heavily, however, on the secondary labour market, which is made up of workers with skills which can be used across a number of industries, for example, secretaries, administrators and maintenance workers. Secondary labour markets do however approximate pretty closely in their characteristics to much of what happens in the industry in terms of the behaviour of employees and their treatment by employers (Goldsmith et al, 1997:16). Boella et al., (2005) suggests that these employees generally attach more importance to a geographical area rather than a career and choose to work in the industry purely to earn a living. The hospitality industry is particularly susceptible to high labour turnover because it is labour intensive and its pattern of staffing is characterised by high mobility, seasonal and part time work, with a high proportion of unskilled, young, part-time and casual staff. The proper use of HRM practices is therefore of great importance to the industry. 3.4 Reasons for staff turnover The greatest numbers of employees leave in the early days of employment, the period in which relationships have not yet developed. Mullins (1998) refers to such turnover as the induction crisis and suggests that it is particularly disruptive and costly. This early turnover is generally the result of improper selection systems, ineffective orientation and inadequate socialization process to adopt employees to the organisation (Phillips, 2005:185). As Torrington et al., (2005) point out, some departures from an organisation are unavoidable, for instance because of relocation, illness or the need to juggle work and family life. According to Lashley and Lincoln (2003), however, high labour turnover is usually due to avoidable causes, such as dissatisfaction with wages, the relationship with other staff or poor working hours, the majority of which can be addressed by effective management. Two broad categories influence staff turnover: work-related attitudes (push factors) and external environmental factors (pull factors) (McBey et al., 2001). Push factors are issues arising within an organisation, including uneven work patterns, poor pay, pe HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale Findings show extensive existing research in the field of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and how they might benefit an organisations business performance. Academics suggest that there is a series or bundle of human resource (HR) practices which are of great benefit to an organisation, for example, selection and recruitment, training and development, without giving any consideration to other contingency factors, such as the size, structure or varying labour markets of an organisation (Pfeffer, 1994a; 1998b; Huselid, 1995 cited in Gonzalez and Tacorante, 2004). This is known as the best practice approach to HRM. There is also a different contingent approach, known as the best-fit approach, which is dependent upon the organisations strategic focus, suggesting that it is more beneficial for an organisation to use HR practices which are more aligned with its strategies and external environment (Legge in Storey, 2001). These two approaches will be discussed in more detail in Cha pter 2. Although the literature in the field of HRM shows a positive correlation between employee perceptions of HRM fairness and employee acceptance and satisfaction with HRM decisions (Bowen et al., 1999), there is a gap in the research when it comes to a direct link between HRM and staff turnover and more research is needed to support an assertion that good HRM within an organisation leads to a greater retention of front office staff. Although the hospitality industry has experienced almost continuous growth since the 1900s, poor staff retention has always been a problem in the industry. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (2009) state that the highest levels of labour turnover are found in the service sector and in the hotel and catering industry in particular (www.cipd.co.uk, 2009). Research points to various reasons for this such as lack of training, development and career opportunities. The term front office refers to organisations departments which come into contact with their customers such as the reception area of a hotel, which might consist of a receptionist, reception supervisor and perhaps a revenue or finance manager in some smaller establishments. It is the authors own experience, from working in the hotel industry, that many front office employees possess certain characteristics which render them more susceptible to a high level of turnover and examples of these will be discussed below. In addition, the author has found that front office employees generally do not receive the same HR configuration as some of their counterparts. For these reasons, the author has seen fit to investigate further the extent to which poor HRM practices affect turnover for front office staff in the hospitality industry. 1.2 Aim The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate two of the main problems in the hospitality industry: poor HRM practices and high staff turnover and the existence of a direct link between these working on the hypothesis that sound HRM practices should significantly reduce staff turnover. 1.3 Objectives To critically review current HRM practices in the hospitality industry, looking specifically at selection and recruitment and training and development, which are seen to have the greatest impact on staff turnover, highlighting the reasons why poor HRM practices might affect staff retention. To provide a definition of staff turnover and discuss the main causes of high staff turnover within the hospitality industry. To investigate the characteristics of front office staff, looking closely at the work of Lepack and Snell (1999a; 2002b) regarding Human Resource Architecture, with the aim of showing that front office staff receive a different HR configuration to other employees who might be seen as more important to an organisation. 1.4 Methodology Research is briefly defined as a form of systematic enquiry that contributes to knowledge (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008:1) and in the case of this dissertation was used to identify new and better ways of managing within the hospitality industry. After reflecting on experience the author decided to investigate further the area of HRM practices and staff turnover, once the research area was decided the author then had to choose the research method which best suited the research question. Saunders suggests that most research questions are answered using some combination of secondary and primary research (Saunders et al., 2003:189). However, the author of this dissertation takes the view that that there is sufficient secondary data available to achieve the aims and objectives stated above and it is therefore based solely on secondary research drawing on existing sources alone. Work by academics in the area of HRM, for example, Lashley (1998); Boxall (2008); Hoque (2000); Purcell (2001a; 2008b); Torrington, Hall and Taylor (1991); Mullins (1998); Lucas (2004); Armstrong (1987a; 1992b; 2000c); Storey (1992a; 1995b; 2001c); and Guest (1987a; 1989b) will be analysed to provide a base to the theory of HRM. Data from government sources, for example, People1st, will be used as further evidence to back up the authors findings. The main advantage of secondary research is that it saves time and money (Ghauri and Gronhaugh, 2002). Secondary data can be obtained much more quickly than primary data and time is the only cost incurred. Secondary data facilitates the analysis of larger data sets, such as those collected by government surveys (Saunders et al, 2003). It is readily available and generally of proven reliability. Stewart and Kimes (1993) suggest that the quality of data in secondary research is likely to be far superior to that obtained through primary research as secondary data is permanent and more open to public scrutiny. Secondary information offers relatively quick and inexpensive answers to many questions and is almost always the point of departure for primary research (Stewart et al., 1993:1). However, it is important to recognise that secondary data does have a number of disadvantages. It may well have been collected for a specific purpose differing, either substantively or in emphasis, from the research question and this dissertations objectives. It might also reflect the attitudes of those collecting it rather than offer an objective picture of reality (Saunders et al., 2003:203). In addition, the secondary data may be outdated. Wrenn et al (2007) suggest that old information may not necessarily be bad information, but that up-to-date information is an absolute necessity (Wrenn et al., 2007:73). The author has attempted to overcome weaknesses of the secondary research method by using secondary data that is both current and closely related in emphasis to this dissertations title, aim and objectives. As the author aimed to analyse a large data set instead of concentrating on a smaller sample, for example, one organisation in particular, it was decided that secondary research would be more appropriate for this type of study. 1.5 Structure Chapter 2 reviews the literature on HRM history, approaches, theories, strategies and practices. Views of prominent academics in the field of HRM are summarised, critically analysed and evaluated. Chapter 3 defines the different types of staff turnover which occur within an organisation, identifying drivers and costs associated with high staff turnover. Characteristics of the hospitality industry, which may make it particularly vulnerable to poor staff retention, are identified. Chapter 4 reviews some of the key HRM practices being used in the hotel industry, focusing on selection and recruitment methods and training and development techniques, explaining how they affect staff turnover. Red Carnation Hotels are used as an example to show the impact the implementation of an effective training programme has on levels of employee turnover. Chapter 5 investigates Lepack and Snells (1999a; 2002b) work on Human Resource Architecture, showing that staff turnover levels in different departments might be attributable to different HR configurations. Chapter 6 concludes that good HRM practices can greatly reduce staff turnover and recommendations for improved staff turnover are made. CHAPTER 2 THE THEORY BEHIND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SOME KEY PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on HRM theory, providing a brief overview of HRMs history and its similarities with personnel management. The hard and soft approaches to HRM are compared and contrasted, as are the best fit and best practice strategies. 2.2 Human Resource Management HRM is a management strategy which aims positively to influence individual ability and motivation and afford employees the opportunity to perform to the best of their abilities. (Blumberg and Pringle, 1982; Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager, 1993 cited in Boxall and Purcell, 2008). Whilst Boella and Goss-Turner (2005) attempt to define HRM simply as a strategic management function aimed at determining and achieving managerial goals, Storey (2001) provides the clearest definition of HRM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. (Storey 2001:6) HRM emerged as a new concept in the 1980s in the USA, promoted by such academics as Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills and Walton (1984) from the Harvard School and other influential writers who argued in favour of a more comprehensive and strategic approach to an organisations workforce (Armstrong, 1992). It quickly spread to the UK. Bratton and Gold (2003) state that HRM assumed new prominence due to concerns about global competition, the internationalization of technology and the productivity of labour (Bratton and Gold, 2003:4), all of which required managers to change the way in which organisations used their human resources and managed the employment relationship. The increased influence of trade unions and the continued growth of organisations in general, led to greater importance being placed on the personnel function of management. Prompted by economic trends and views of influential writers at the time, such as Pascale and Athos (1981), Peters and Waterman (1982), Kanter (1984) and Porter (1985), along with those from the Harvard School, chief executives began to realise that to gain, and retain, competitive advantage, human resources must be properly managed. Cuming (1993) suggests that employees are in fact the most important resource available to an organisation if organisational success is to be achieved. HRM enables an organisation to achieve goals through its workforce, whilst integrating human resource policies and business plans. Effective HRM should create a working environment in which all employees can be utilised to their full capacity and potential. It plays an important role in building the capabilities of a workforce and improving the general climate of employee attitudes (Boxall and Purcell, 2008) and aims to ensure commitment from individuals in order to achieve success for the organisation (Guest 1987). Academics have conflicting views on the meaning of HRM, some doubting its existence altogether. Fowler (1987), for example, believes that HRM is nothing more than a construct largely invented by academics and popularised by consultants (Fowler 1987 cited in Armstrong, 1999:586), while Woods (1999) claims that HRM is a paradox which has never really been mastered. Many academics are unable to make a clear distinction between HRM and personnel management (Armstrong, 1987; Sisson and Bach, 1989a; 1994b, 2000c; Legge, 1995; Torrington and Hall, 1998), while others are able to easily identify differences between them. The best way to conceptualise them, however, is as a continuum with personnel management at one end and HRM at the other (Wilson, 2001:47). Their differences and similarities can be found summarised in Table 1. 2.3 Hard and Soft HRM There are two approaches to HRM, each of which aims to provide an organisation with a competitive advantage. Storey (1992) and Guest (1987) were the first writers to make the distinction suggesting that the emphasis could either be on human or resources. In the UK, the two approaches are known as hard and soft HRM. The hard approach to HRM stresses the need for business orientated style, with an emphasis on productivity, efficiency in the utilisation of human resources and the achievement of business goals (Boella and Goss-Turner, 2005:23). Nickson (2007) describes the hard approach as instrumental and economically rational (Nickson 2007:9), aiming to gain a competitive advantage whilst keeping labour costs to a minimum. Armstrong (1992) suggests that the hard approach to HRM treats employees like any other resource, for instance land or capital, to be used as managers see fit. However, this approach does not necessarily mean that employees will be treated badly. Marchington and Wilkinson (2002) suggest that if labour is in short supply or is central to the achievement of organisational goals, employees may be treated well. For the hard approach to be most effective, the staffing structure of an organisation must mirror its needs. It is essential that an organisation has the right number of staff in the right place at the right time (Wilson, 2005). The HRM practice of human resource planning is therefore crucial (Mullins, 1998). The alternative approach, soft HRM, stresses the human aspects of HRM (Price, 2007) focussing particularly on communication and motivation. Training and development programmes as well as commitment strategies are used with the aim of producing highly skilled employees in order to gain a competitive advantage (Bratton and Gold, 2003). A soft HRM approach puts staff at the centre of determining and realising strategic objectives and staff are led rather than managed to achieve organisational success. Storey (1992) states that Soft HRM sees employees as a valuable resource whose competencies, skills and attitudes are to be appropriately nurtured (Storey, 1992:28). The organisation and its workforce work together towards a competitive advantage, the organisation aiming to improve the quality of its staff in the hope that it will reap the rewards of their development. The soft approach is based on the premise that if employees feel they have been treated well, they will do all they can to achieve organisational goals. Although some authors, for example Sisson (1994), argue that organisations claiming to use a soft HRM approach may just be using the language to disguise what is actually a hard approach, similarities have been drawn between a soft HRM approach and personnel management, as organisations use employees to achieve a competitive advantage through developing their skills and loyalty. 2.4 The best practice or best fit approach to HRM There are two fundamental HR strategies which are used to ensure that the effects of HR practices are maximised. The best practice approach is generally agreed to comprise a list of tangible practices, with best practice HRM or bundles of practices having the greatest impact on performance (Pfeffer,1994a; 1998b; Huselid,1995; Wood, 1995; Patterson et al, 1998; Guest, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Best practice approach is based on the assumption that there is a set of best HRM practices and that adopting them will inevitably lead to superior organisational performance. (Armstrong 2000:135) The best fit model on the other hand is based on the principle that HR strategy will be more effective when appropriately integrated within the specific firm and environmental context (Boxall and Purcell, 2001) Writers suggest that there is a bundle of practices essential to the HR effective strategy of any organisation. These include practices discussed in more detail below, such as selection and recruitment, and training and development. Others may be more marginal as they do not necessarily have general application, for instance, family friendly policies, profit related pay and share ownership (Guest, 2001; Torrington et al, 1999a; 2002b; 2005c). The importance of deploying these practices in the correct manner must, however, be stressed. Simply employing them without the correct management may have a negative effect on an organisation and its retention of human resources. Critics of the best practice strategy argue that, as organisations vary in size, compete in different labour markets and have varying market strategies, what works for one organisation might not necessarily work as well for another. Organisations work systems are highly idiosyncratic (Becker et al, 1997 cited in Ingham, 2007:78) with optimum results only being achieved if practices are tailored carefully to each individual situation. Larger organisations, for instance, are more likely than smaller entities to adopt more sophisticated staffing and training procedures and to have a more structured workforce with more specialised jobs and defined career hierarchies. They inevitably require therefore more formalised HR practices to facilitate the management of larger numbers (Schuler and Jackson 1995). The concept of fit between business and HR policy is based on the assumption that if HRM is more contingent with the external environment and an organisations business strategy, it will lead to higher performance and competitive advantage (Legge cited in Storey, 2001). The best fit approach ensures that HR strategies are aligned with the culture and operational process of an organisation as well as the external environment. Armstrong suggests that this is one of the most important aims in a development programme (Armstrong 2000:132). 2.5 HRM practices Recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer 1992; Woods and Mcaulay 1989; Wagner 1991; Wheelhouse 1989) and training and development opportunities (Hogan 1992; Himestra 1990; Conrade et al., 1994) have been identified as having the biggest impact on staff turnover and are explored in detail in Chapter 4. Mullins (1995) recognises that the aim of any organisation must be to select the best available staff in the first place, train and develop them and to retain them for a reasonable period of time (Mullins 1995:183). Through the use of various intervention processes, for example, recruitment and selection and training and development, an organisation can influence turnover (Mullins, 1995 cited Cheng and Brown, 1998:138). This is consistent with literature which suggests that the use of high performance work practices, including recruitment and selection procedures and training, are associated with lower labour turnover, greater productivity and corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995:635) However, before exploring recruitment and selection and training and development further it is important to mention some of the other key HRM practices used in the hospitality industry. HRM practices should cover five main areas: Staffing and recruitment; making sure that available jobs within an organisation are filled appropriately by staff with the required knowledge, experience, abilities and skills, whilst also deploying an effective retention programme. Rewards; carrying out regular appraisals and making sure that reward systems are in place as well as that staff benefit for achieving organisational goals. Employee development; ensuring that employees have the correct amount of training to enable them to do their job to the best of their abilities whilst enabling them to reach their full potential. Employee maintenance and job security; making sure that employees are working in a safe environment as well as offering support where redundancies are necessary. (Bratton and Gold, 1999; Mullins, 1998; Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas 2004) It is also suggested that HRM practices should include team working, employee involvement, liaisons with outside bodies (ACAS, HCTC and HCIMA), maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions (Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas, 2004, Mullins, 1998). 2.6 Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection is an important element of HRM in all organisations regardless of size, structure or sector (Marchington et al., 2005) and is critical to the long-term success of every hospitality business (Hayes et al., 2009). In terms of the hotel industry, Kelliher and Johnson (1987, 1997) have suggested that recruitment is, in fact, HRMs central function. Recruitment is the process of identifying candidates for current or future position vacancies. It is Those practices and activities carried out by the organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees (Barber, 1998:5 cited in Purcell et al., 2007:273; Hayes et al 2009:44). Selection is the process of choosing an individual for a current or future position vacancy (Hayes et al., 2009:44). Selection pares down the number of applicants while recruitment makes the paring down possible by producing the pool of candidates from whom new employees will be selected. However Recruitment and selection is generally viewed as an integrated function (Mullins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b) and is considered as such in this dissertation. The recruitment and selection process is the first point of contact for potential employees, who will tend to judge the organisation as a whole by the manner in which it is conducted, as well as the first stage in the HRM value chain. This leads some specialists to the view that: effective recruitment is likely to be the most critical human resource function for organisational success and survival (Taylor and Collins, 2000:304 cited in Boxall et al., 2007:273). Managers must address a number of questions before they begin the recruitment and selection process for it to have the desired effect, particularly whom to target, where, how (web, newspapers, job fairs) and when and what message to communicate (Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh and Stake, 2000 cited in Boxall et al, 2007:274). Literature suggests that recruitment and selection techniques have progressed from purely traditional techniques (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking) towards more strategic approaches (networking, internal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection) (Nankarvis and Debrah, 1995; Nankarvis, 1993b). There has also been an increase in recruiting through informal methods (word-of-mouth networks, recruit a relative or friend incentives, keep warm contacts with past employees and speculative applicants). Evidence suggests that such incentives strengthen job satisfaction for both recruiter and recruited (Purcell and Rowley, 2001:183), which in turn reduces staff turnover. There are a number of potential implications of poor selection decisions: Managers may have to waste time on disciplinary procedures or retraining poor performers as well as recruiting replacements for those leaving the job soon after commencing employment. These processes are both expensive and time-consuming, possibly diverting managers from other tasks. Poor recruitment and selection techniques do not only lead to under-qualified staff being employed. Some may be over-qualified and decide to leave soon after starting the job (Marchington et al., 2005). 2.7 Training and Development Training and Development is another key HRM practice which, if performed effectively, can reduce staff turnover within an organisation. Pepper (1984) defines training as the organized process concerned with the acquisition of capability or the maintenance of capability (Pepper, 1984:9-11 cited in Wilson, 1999:118). It is also viewed as a service provided by an organisation for its internal customers- its employees (Lovelock, 1989 cited in Chiang et al, 2005:101). Wexley and Latham (1991) introduce development into their definition suggesting that training and development is a planned effort by an organisation to facilitate the learning of job related behaviour on the part of its employees (Wexley and Latham, 1991:3). Development can relate to future requirements, such as preparation for promotion, whilst training generally relates to the here and now. For the purposes of this dissertation, however, the two terms are considered synonymous. Training strategies can include the employment of skilled trainers and use of training manuals or videos as support tools. Training can be hands-on or may take the form of classroom training. In some cases, the two strategies may be used together with feedback being provided through evaluation and appraisals (Chiang, 2005:101). Training may be either formal and take place outside the organisation or informal, on the job, where observation and instruction occurs on site (Jones, 2004:127). An effective training plan requires a good training site, a qualified trainer with clear objectives and methods as well as the necessary training tools and an evaluation strategy (Tanke, 1990). Paynes (2004) suggests that the aim of any training plan must be to ensure that staff have the required knowledge, skills, abilities and characteristics to confront new challenges 2.8 Conclusion HRM has been defined and the conflicting views have been discussed as have the different approaches and strategies used in order to provide an overview of the topic of HRM. An overview of the key HRM practices has also been provided and those most relevant to the hospitality industry have been split into key areas. Although selection and recruitment and training and development are suggested to have the greatest impact on employee turnover, the literature suggests that other key HRM practices, such as reward schemes, employee maintenance, liaisons with outside bodies, maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions, may also have a significant effect (Bratton and Gold 1999, Mullins 1998, Redman and Mathews 1998 and Lashley 1998). CHAPTER 3 STAFF TURNOVER 3.1 Introduction This Chapter explores the concept of staff turnover. Staff turnover is defined and a measure used to calculate turnover levels is discussed, along with its limitations. The characteristics of the Hospitality Industry are identified to show the extent to which they might make the industry more vulnerable to high staff turnover and turnover figures will be provided to support any assumptions that have been made. Some of the main reasons for high staff turnover in the industry will be considered looking in particular at some of the relevant push and pull factors. The cost and benefits of staff turnover will be weighed up to demonstrate the real need for the proper deployment of some of the HRM practices discussed in Chapter 2. 3.2 Definition of Staff Turnover The Hospitality Training Foundation (HtF) defines staff turnover as, the number of people leaving their job in a year as a percentage of the people employed in the industry (Hospitality Training Foundation, 1998 cited in Boella, 2005:178). Generally, turnover is measured over the financial year and is a measure of separations from an employing organisation. Organisations can use the following formula to calculate turnover rate in each department. Number of employees who left during the period X 100 Average number employed during the period Analysis of the turnover rate allows organisations not only to see whether they generally have a problem of high turnover but also to compare the rates of turnover between departments and to target workforce planning strategies accordingly. The calculation above is simple and is a broad indicator but it does have limitations. It does not reflect length of service of employees or whether or not the employer employs a few people at a high rate of pay or many people at a low rate of pay (Boella et al., 2000a; 2005b). The calculation also includes unavoidable turnover, for example, staff leaving due to illness, death or relocation and it may be beneficial to an organisation to create a measure which only measures avoidable turnover (Phillips, 2005). There are four types of turnover which occur within an organisation: voluntary; involuntary; functional and dysfunctional. The differences between them are summarised in Table 2. 3.3 Labour turnover in the Hospitality Industry Over the last 30 years the hospitality leisure and tourism sector has enjoyed a sustained period of growth and now accounts for nearly 5% of the UKs total economic output, employing 2 million people, 1/14 jobs in the UK. Labour turnover across the sector is the highest of all sectors of the economy, rising from 30% in 2005 to 31% in 2008 with recruitment and development of new staff costing an estimated  £414 million in 2008/2009 (Wisdom, 2009). A minority of employees in the hospitality industry are drawn from the primary labour market and as such are generally committed to the industry and sometimes to a particular sector within it. Riley (1996) estimates that 6% of jobs in the hospitality industry are managerial positions, 8% supervisory and 22% craft (Riley, 1996 cited in Kusluvan, 2003). The industry relies heavily, however, on the secondary labour market, which is made up of workers with skills which can be used across a number of industries, for example, secretaries, administrators and maintenance workers. Secondary labour markets do however approximate pretty closely in their characteristics to much of what happens in the industry in terms of the behaviour of employees and their treatment by employers (Goldsmith et al, 1997:16). Boella et al., (2005) suggests that these employees generally attach more importance to a geographical area rather than a career and choose to work in the industry purely to earn a living. The hospitality industry is particularly susceptible to high labour turnover because it is labour intensive and its pattern of staffing is characterised by high mobility, seasonal and part time work, with a high proportion of unskilled, young, part-time and casual staff. The proper use of HRM practices is therefore of great importance to the industry. 3.4 Reasons for staff turnover The greatest numbers of employees leave in the early days of employment, the period in which relationships have not yet developed. Mullins (1998) refers to such turnover as the induction crisis and suggests that it is particularly disruptive and costly. This early turnover is generally the result of improper selection systems, ineffective orientation and inadequate socialization process to adopt employees to the organisation (Phillips, 2005:185). As Torrington et al., (2005) point out, some departures from an organisation are unavoidable, for instance because of relocation, illness or the need to juggle work and family life. According to Lashley and Lincoln (2003), however, high labour turnover is usually due to avoidable causes, such as dissatisfaction with wages, the relationship with other staff or poor working hours, the majority of which can be addressed by effective management. Two broad categories influence staff turnover: work-related attitudes (push factors) and external environmental factors (pull factors) (McBey et al., 2001). Push factors are issues arising within an organisation, including uneven work patterns, poor pay, pe